Within Not Cynicism
When fake images make real ones suspect
Fear of synthetic media can help people spot fakes, but it can also give bad actors a reason to deny authentic evidence.
On this page
- Why deepfake concern changes how people judge evidence
- How denial differs from reasonable doubt
- Verification habits for images, video and screenshots
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Introduction
Deepfakes are usually discussed as a way to make people believe false things. An equally important problem is that they can make people stop believing true things. Once realistic synthetic images, audio and video become common, anyone confronted with damaging evidence can claim that it was generated or manipulated. In the context of critical thinking, this creates a difficult shift: the challenge is no longer only spotting fakes, but also protecting authentic evidence from being dismissed without good reason.
Researchers and legal scholars call this phenomenon the “liar’s dividend”. The idea is simple: the existence of convincing fake media gives dishonest people a ready-made excuse to deny genuine recordings, photographs or screenshots. The result is not greater scrutiny alone. It can also produce cynicism, confusion and reduced accountability. [California Law Review]californialawreview.orgCalifornia Law ReviewDeep Fakes: A Looming Challenge for Privacy, Democracy…And, in what we call the “liar's dividend,” deep fakes mak…
Why deepfake concern changes how people judge evidence
The spread of synthetic media changes the psychology of trust. Before deepfakes became widely known, a video or audio recording was often treated as strong evidence unless there was a specific reason to doubt it. Today, many people know that realistic fabrications are possible, which encourages a more cautious attitude.
That caution has benefits. People may become less likely to share obviously manipulated clips and more willing to ask where a piece of media came from. However, awareness can also overshoot. Instead of asking whether evidence is authentic, some people begin with the assumption that authenticity is unknowable. This moves from scepticism into a broader distrust of evidence itself. [PMC]pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govFooled twice: People cannot detect deepfakes but think they canby NC Köbis · 2021 · Cited by 194 — We show that (1) people cannot reli…
Recent research suggests that the social effect of deepfakes may extend beyond successful deception. A large 2026 study on audio deepfakes found a growing “skepticism shift”: people were not dramatically worse at identifying fake audio, but they had become significantly more likely to distrust genuine recordings. In other words, authentic speech increasingly risked being mistaken for synthetic speech. [arXiv]arxiv.orgEroding Trust in Real Speech: A Large-Scale Study of Human Audio Deepfake PerceptionMay 21, 2026…
This matters because evidence often works cumulatively. Journalists, investigators, courts and citizens rarely rely on a single image or clip. If people become predisposed to doubt every piece of media evidence, even authentic material may lose persuasive power.
How denial differs from reasonable doubt
The key distinction is between evidence-based doubt and strategic doubt.
Reasonable doubt arises from identifiable problems. A recording may have missing context. Metadata may be unavailable. A screenshot may lack a verifiable source. An image may contain visual anomalies. In these cases, questioning authenticity is part of responsible evaluation.
Strategic doubt works differently. Instead of presenting evidence that a recording is fake, someone merely points to the existence of deepfakes as a possibility. The claim becomes: “You cannot prove this is real, therefore you should not believe it.”
This is the core mechanism of the liar’s dividend. Legal scholars Robert Chesney and Danielle Citron warned that deepfakes could make it easier for people to evade responsibility for genuine actions by claiming that authentic evidence was fabricated. [California Law Review]californialawreview.orgCalifornia Law ReviewDeep Fakes: A Looming Challenge for Privacy, Democracy…And, in what we call the “liar's dividend,” deep fakes mak…
Subsequent research has found support for this concern. Studies examining political communication suggest that false claims that a scandalous story, recording or video is fake can help public figures maintain support by introducing uncertainty and encouraging loyal audiences to reject damaging evidence. [Cambridge University Press & Assessment+2IDEAS/RePEc]cambridge.orgLooks real, feels fake: conflict detection in deepfake videos.Read moreCambridge University Press & AssessmentThe Liar's Dividend: Can Politicians Claim Misinformation…by KJ SCHIFF · 2025 · Cited by 78 — T…
The crucial point is that reasonable doubt asks, “What evidence suggests manipulation?” Strategic doubt asks, “Can I create enough uncertainty that people stop caring whether it is true?”
The accountability problem
The consequences extend beyond individual arguments online. The liar’s dividend creates governance and accountability challenges because many institutions depend on audiovisual evidence.
Journalists rely on photographs and recordings to document events. Human-rights organisations often depend on smartphone footage from witnesses. Courts increasingly receive digital evidence. Public officials may be held accountable through recordings of statements or actions.
If authentic media can be dismissed simply by alleging manipulation, the burden on those institutions grows substantially. Researchers and practitioners working on misinformation have warned that authoritarian governments and powerful actors can exploit accusations of “deepfake” or “manipulation” to undermine genuine evidence of misconduct. [WIRED]wired.comAuthoritarian Regimes Could Exploit Cries of 'DeepfakeThis incident highlights the growing challenge of distinguishing real footage from manipulated content, especially with the rise of sophi…
The problem is especially acute because ordinary people are generally poor at distinguishing real and synthetic media by visual inspection alone. Multiple studies have found that confidence often exceeds actual detection ability. People may feel certain they can spot a fake even when their performance is only slightly better than chance. [PMC]pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govFooled twice: People cannot detect deepfakes but think they canby NC Köbis · 2021 · Cited by 194 — We show that (1) people cannot reli…
This combination is dangerous: widespread awareness of deepfakes, limited detection ability and high confidence in personal judgement can make unsupported accusations of fakery seem persuasive.
Why “everything could be fake” is not critical thinking
A common misunderstanding is that deepfakes mean visual evidence is now worthless. That conclusion does not follow.
Most important decisions are not based on a single image or video. Investigators typically combine multiple forms of evidence:
- Original files rather than reposted copies.
- Metadata and timestamps.
- Witness testimony.
- Independent recordings from different sources.
- Location verification and contextual details.
- Device and platform records.
Authenticity is usually established through converging evidence rather than intuition alone. The existence of forged documents has never made all documents meaningless; similarly, the existence of deepfakes does not make all media unreliable.
Critical thinking therefore requires resisting two extremes:
- Naive trust: believing media because it looks convincing.
- Reflexive cynicism: dismissing media because deepfakes exist.
Both approaches avoid the harder task of examining evidence quality.
Verification habits for images, video and screenshots
The most effective response to deepfake-driven doubt is not blind trust or blanket suspicion, but stronger verification habits.
Images and photographs
When assessing a potentially important image:
- Look for the original source rather than reposts.
- Check whether reputable organisations have independently verified it.
- Compare it with other photographs from the same event.
- Examine whether location, weather, timing and visible details match known facts.
- Treat isolated images as weaker evidence than images supported by additional documentation. [FIDA Software & Beratung]fida.deSoftware & Beratung Deep fakes, fake news, what is still real?How can I…July 21, 2025 — 21 Jul 2025 — A critical look at light, perspective, details, text and context can help you to expose many f…
Video and audio
For recordings:
- Seek the earliest available version.
- Look for corroborating footage from other angles or witnesses.
- Consider whether credible forensic analysis has been performed.
- Be cautious about claims that a recording is fake unless supporting evidence is presented.
- Distinguish between demonstrated manipulation and mere speculation. Brennan Center for Justice+2San Francisco Chronicle [brennancenter.org]brennancenter.orgdeepfakes elections and shrinking liars dividendliar's dividend. Means of Discovery. Deepfake detectors alone are insufficient to deter a false claim of artificiality, but enhanced cont…
Screenshots
Screenshots deserve particular caution because they are easy to alter and often strip away useful context.
Useful questions include:
- Is the original post, message or document available?
- Can the content be verified through archives or direct links?
- Does the screenshot contain signs of editing or cropping?
- Do other sources independently confirm the same information? [FIDA Software & Beratung]fida.deSoftware & Beratung Deep fakes, fake news, what is still real?How can I…July 21, 2025 — 21 Jul 2025 — A critical look at light, perspective, details, text and context can help you to expose many f…
Building trust without becoming gullible
As synthetic media improves, the challenge is not simply detecting fake content. It is preserving justified trust in authentic content. Experts increasingly emphasise content provenance systems, authentication standards and forensic methods that can help establish where media originated and whether it has been altered. These approaches aim to make false accusations of fakery less credible while still allowing genuine manipulation to be exposed. [Brennan Center for Justice+2Axios]brennancenter.orgdeepfakes elections and shrinking liars dividendliar's dividend. Means of Discovery. Deepfake detectors alone are insufficient to deter a false claim of artificiality, but enhanced cont…
The deeper lesson for critical thinking is that uncertainty should trigger investigation, not resignation. Deepfakes make verification more important, but they do not eliminate the possibility of knowing what happened. The danger arises when awareness of manipulation becomes an excuse to stop evaluating evidence altogether. In that environment, synthetic media does not merely create falsehoods; it creates opportunities to deny truths that would otherwise be difficult to escape. [California Law Review+2ncsc.org]californialawreview.orgCalifornia Law ReviewDeep Fakes: A Looming Challenge for Privacy, Democracy…And, in what we call the “liar's dividend,” deep fakes mak…
Amazon book picks
Further Reading
Books and field guides related to When fake images make real ones suspect. Use these as the next step if you want deeper reading beyond the article.
The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe
Helps readers separate reasonable doubt from denial.
The Constitution of Knowledge
Addresses how truth survives in an environment of doubt.
Digital literacy for dummies
First published 2015. Subjects: Information literacy, Computer literacy, Internet literacy, Microsoft Windows (Computer file), Computers.
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Endnotes
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Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8602050/Source snippet
Fooled twice: People cannot detect deepfakes but think they canby NC Köbis · 2021 · Cited by 194 — We show that (1) people cannot reli...
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Source: arxiv.org
Link: https://arxiv.org/abs/2605.26136Source snippet
Eroding Trust in Real Speech: A Large-Scale Study of Human Audio Deepfake PerceptionMay 21, 2026...
Published: May 21, 2026
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Source: cambridge.org
Title: Looks real, feels fake: conflict detection in deepfake videos.Read more
Link: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/liars-dividend-can-politicians-claim-misinformation-to-evade-accountability/687FEE54DBD7ED0C96D72B26606AA073Source snippet
Cambridge University Press & AssessmentThe Liar's Dividend: Can Politicians Claim Misinformation...by KJ SCHIFF · 2025 · Cited by 78 — T...
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Source: ideas.repec.org
Link: https://ideas.repec.org/p/osf/socarx/x43ph.htmlSource snippet
IDEAS/RePEcThe Liar's Dividend: The Impact of Deepfakes and Fake...by KJ Schiff · 2023 · Cited by 13 — Strategic and false claims that s...
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Source: wired.com
Title: Authoritarian Regimes Could Exploit Cries of ‘Deepfake’
Link: https://www.wired.com/story/opinion-authoritarian-regimes-could-exploit-cries-of-deepfakeSource snippet
This incident highlights the growing challenge of distinguishing real footage from manipulated content, especially with the rise of sophi...
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Source: arxiv.org
Title: arXiv Testing Human Ability To Detect Deepfake Images of Human Faces
Link: https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.05056 -
Source: fida.de
Title: Software & Beratung Deep fakes, fake news, what is still real?
Link: https://www.fida.de/en/blog/deep-fakes-fake-news-what-is-still-real-how-can-i-recognize-fake-picturesSource snippet
How can I...July 21, 2025 — 21 Jul 2025 — A critical look at light, perspective, details, text and context can help you to expose many f...
Published: July 21, 2025
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Source: axios.com
Link: https://www.axios.com/2019/07/12/deepfake-authentication-privacySource snippet
The current challenge is that detection methods lag behind the increasingly sophisticated deepfakes, raising concerns about the erosion o...
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Source: ncsc.org
Title: ai generated evidence threat public trust courts
Link: https://www.ncsc.org/resources-courts/ai-generated-evidence-threat-public-trust-courtsSource snippet
Defense attorneys have begun invoking "the...Read more...
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Source: arxiv.org
Link: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2212.05056 -
Source: californialawreview.org
Link: https://www.californialawreview.org/print/deep-fakes-a-looming-challenge-for-privacy-democracy-and-national-securitySource snippet
California Law ReviewDeep Fakes: A Looming Challenge for Privacy, Democracy...And, in what we call the “liar's dividend,” deep fakes mak...
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Source: sfchronicle.com
Link: https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/hany-farid-ai-deepfakes-22291920.phpSource snippet
Farid has built a reputation by helping news organizations, governments, and corporations verify content authenticity. With deepfake cont...
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Source: brennancenter.org
Title: deepfakes elections and shrinking liars dividend
Link: https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/deepfakes-elections-and-shrinking-liars-dividendSource snippet
liar's dividend. Means of Discovery. Deepfake detectors alone are insufficient to deter a false claim of artificiality, but enhanced cont...
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Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12047760/Source snippet
Assessing the evidence via a...by D Ching · 2025 · Cited by 18 — In this paper, we present a scoping review mapping the current state of...
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Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9453721/Source snippet
and Democracy (Theory): How Synthetic Audio...by M Pawelec · 2022 · Cited by 182 — “'Liar's dividend': The more we learn about deepfakes...
Additional References
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Source: researchgate.net
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/404380138_Deepfakes_and_Legal_Accountability_A_Threat_to_Evidence_and_Reputation_Mr_Mukul_MukulSource snippet
Deepfakes and Legal Accountability: A Threat to Evidence...2 May 2026 — The rise of deepfake technology-hyper-realistic but artificially...
Published: May 2026
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Source: facebook.com
Title: 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗹𝗶𝗮𝗿𝘀 𝗱𝗶𝘃𝗶𝗱𝗲𝗻𝗱 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗯𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗹𝗲 𝗳𝗼𝗿 𝘁𝗿𝘂𝘁𝗵 𝗮𝗵𝗲𝗮𝗱 𝗼𝗳 2027 discover the liars dividen
Link: https://www.facebook.com/punchnewspaper/posts/%F0%9D%97%A7%F0%9D%97%B5%F0%9D%97%B2-%F0%9D%97%B9%F0%9D%97%B6%F0%9D%97%AE%F0%9D%97%BF%F0%9D%98%80-%F0%9D%97%B1%F0%9D%97%B6%F0%9D%98%83%F0%9D%97%B6%F0%9D%97%B1%F0%9D%97%B2%F0%9D%97%BB%F0%9D%97%B1-%F0%9D%97%AE%F0%9D%97%BB%F0%9D%97%B1-%F0%9D%97%AF%F0%9D%97%AE%F0%9D%98%81%F0%9D%98%81%F0%9D%97%B9%F0%9D%97%B2-%F0%9D%97%B3%F0%9D%97%BC%F0%9D%97%BF-%F0%9D%98%81%F0%9D%97%BF%F0%9D%98%82%F0%9D%98%81%F0%9D%97%B5-%F0%9D%97%AE%F0%9D%97%B5%F0%9D%97%B2%F0%9D%97%AE%F0%9D%97%B1-%F0%9D%97%BC%F0%9D%97%B3-2027-discover-the-liars-dividen/1361241602706686/Source snippet
𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗹𝗶𝗮𝗿'𝘀 𝗱𝗶𝘃𝗶𝗱𝗲𝗻𝗱 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗯𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗹𝗲 𝗳𝗼𝗿 𝘁𝗿𝘂𝘁𝗵...The liar's dividend and battle for truth ahead of 2027 Discover the liar's dividend, where de...
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Source: brookings.edu
Title: watch out for false claims of deepfakes and actual deepfakes this election year
Link: https://www.brookings.edu/articles/watch-out-for-false-claims-of-deepfakes-and-actual-deepfakes-this-election-year/Source snippet
Watch out for false claims of deepfakes, and actual...30 May 2024 — We find evidence across several studies that politicians and other p...
Published: May 2024
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Source: ft.com
Title: Financial Times Transcript: The trouble with deepfakes
Link: https://www.ft.com/content/7f22ce59-1c6c-4d84-bca8-dc539992e286Source snippet
By examining a case from a Baltimore high school, where an athletics director created a deepfake audio clip to discredit the principal, M...
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Source: truescreen.io
Link: https://truescreen.io/articles/liars-dividend-digital-trust-crisis/Source snippet
The Liar's Dividend Explained: How It Erodes Digital Trust26 Mar 2026 — The liar's dividend: when authentic content gets dismissed as fake...
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Source: cset.georgetown.edu
Title: deepfakes elections and shrinking the liars dividend
Link: https://cset.georgetown.edu/article/deepfakes-elections-and-shrinking-the-liars-dividend/Source snippet
georgetown.eduDeepfakes, Elections, and Shrinking the Liar's Dividend23 Jan 2024 — Josh A. Goldstein and Andrew Lohn delve into the conce...
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deepfakes will make us question everything in 202018 Feb 2020 — The article also mentioned the paper by Chesney and Professor Danielle Ci...
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The Liar's Dividend: Deepfakes, synthetic media, and...Aug 6, 2025 — The Liar's Dividend: Deepfakes, synthetic media, and the...
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Title: Shadow: The Liar’s Dividend and How AI Makes Truth
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May 24, 2026 — Analysis by former CIA Deputy Director Jennifer Ewbank. Gray zone activity, algorithmic manipulation, disinformation, AI t...
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(PDF) The Liar's Dividend: Can Politicians Use Deepfakes...deepfakes, leading to what Chesney and Citron (2019) term the “liar's dividen...
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